Indigenous Presence

Long before the arrival of European colonists, the Caribbean was home for millennia to Amerindians. Indeed, the Caribbean draws its name from the Carib peoples, and the poem notes indigenous names for specific islands throughout its verses. The Kalinago Caribs inhabited the Leeward and Windward Islands, while the Kalina Caribs resided in northern South America. The Arawaks, so named because of their language, also inhabited the Greater and Lesser Antilles and coastal South America, and, as a result, the Caribs and Arawaks often clashed over territorial rights. In spite of their conflicts, all of these groups relied upon and utilized the region’s natural resources: they cultivated crops for food and drink, and they learned which plants could be used as medicine or wielded as poison.

Faced with the task of describing various plants and reporting their possible uses, Grainger credits indigenous persons, whom he most often calls “Indians,” with this knowledge in several passages. Such moments appear primarily in Book I, but there are also mentions in the other three books, including a discussion of native plants within subsistence gardens at the poem’s close. These references, although limited in number, demonstrate the depth of Amerindian botanical and ecological knowledge. At the same time, Grainger relegates most mentions of indigenous peoples and knowledge in The Sugar-Cane to footnotes, structurally decentralizing indigenous authority within his text. Even Grainger’s use of the categories “Indian” and “indigenous” are fraught: he attaches such labels to inhabitants of both the East and West Indies, as well as to non-native plants that have merely grown in the region for a considerable period of time. This vagueness complicates tracing and locating specifically indigenous expertise. Moreover, Grainger appropriates indigenous knowledge for his own purposes in his preface to the poem, claiming that he has learned about “indigneous remedies” so thoroughly as to make his own “trials” of them. By arguing that such expertise and abilities should be “universally known,” Grainger further distributes this knowledge outside of indigenous communities, positioning his own text as the authoritative source of such information.

Despite Grainger’s attempts to simultaneously take possession of Amerindian knowledge and obscure its origins, we hope to allow the reader to recognize, explore, and meditate upon indigenous, rather than colonial, authority by collating the footnotes in which Grainger mentions indigenous peoples and the information he gained from them. Questions to consider include, How does Grainger characterize the relationship between indigenous and colonial inhabitants, and what exactly does he credit Amerindians with teaching him and other colonists? How does referring to indigenous peoples as “Indians” rather than “Carib,” “Kalinago,” or “Arawak” impact readers’ perceptions of such nations? Why does Grainger include indigenous words like “Liamuiga” and “suirsaak”? What effect does his frequent use of the passive voice have on our recognition of the origins and applications of plant knowledge?

Note: For a general overview of the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean, see the entries for “Arawaks,” “Caribs,” and “Taínos” in David Head’s Encyclopedia of the Atlantic World, 1400-1900. Hans Sloane’s A Voyage to the Islands Madera, Barbados, Nieves, S. Christophers and Jamaica and Griffith Hughes’ The Natural History of Barbados provide further descriptions of plant usage by indigenous peoples.

—Kimberly Takahata

Cassava, hand-colored engraving from Maria Sibylla Merian, Metamorphosis insectorum Surinamensium, Amsterdam, 1719, pl. 5.

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IN a West-India georgic,¹ the mention of many indigenous remedies, as well as diseases, was unavoidable. The truth is, I have rather courted opportunities of this nature, than avoided them. Medicines of such amazing efficacy, as I have had occasion to make trials of in these islands, deserve to be universally known.² And wherever, in the following poem, I recommend any such, I beg leave to be understood as a physician, and not as a poet….³

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VER. 45. sabbaca:]⁴ This is the Indian name of the avocato, avocado, avigato, or, as the English corruptly call it, alligator-pear. The Spaniards in South-America name it aguacate, and under that name it is described by Ulloa.⁵ However, in Peru and Mexico, it is better known by the appellation of palta or palto. It is a sightly tree, of two species; the one bearing a green fruit, which is the most delicate, and the other a red, which is less esteemed, and grows chiefly in Mexico.⁶ When ripe, the skin peels easily off, and discovers a butyraceous,⁷ or rather a marrowy like substance, with greenish veins interspersed. Being eat with salt and pepper, or sugar and lime-juice, it is not only agreeable, but highly nourishing; hence Sir Hans Sloane⁸ used to stile it Vegetable marrow. The fruit is of the size and shape of the pear named Lady’s-thighs,⁹ and contains a large stone, from whence the tree is propagated. These trees bear fruit but once a year. Few strangers care for it; but, by use, soon become fond of it. The juice of the kernel marks linen with a violet-colour. Its wood is soft, and consequently of little use. The French call it Bois d’anise,¹⁰ and the tree Avocat: the botanical name is Persea….

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VER. 60. green St. Christopher,]¹¹ This beautiful and fertile island, and which, in Shakespear’s words, may justly be stiled

“A precious stone set in the silver sea,”¹²

lies in seventeenth degree N. L.¹³ It was discovered by the great Christopher Columbus,¹⁴ in his second voyage, 1493, who was so pleased with its appearance, that he honoured it with his Christian name. Though others pretend, that appellation was given it from an imaginary resemblance between a high mountain in its centre, now called Mount Misery, to the fabulous legend of the Devil’s carrying St. Christopher on his shoulders.¹⁵ But, be this as it will, the Spaniards soon after settled it, and lived in tolerable harmony with the natives for many years; and, as their fleets commonly called in there to and from America for provision and water, the settlers, no doubt, reaped some advantage from their situation. By Templeman’s Survey,¹⁶ it contains eighty square miles, and is about seventy miles in circumference. It is of an irregular oblong figure, and has a chain of mountains, that run South and North almost from the one end of it to the other, formerly covered with wood, but now the Cane-plantations reach almost to their summits, and extend all the way, down their easy declining sides, to the sea. From these mountains some rivers take their rise, which never dry up; and there are many others which, after rain, run into the sea, but which, at other times, are lost before they reach it. Hence, as this island consists of mountain-land and valley, it must always make a midling crop; for when the low grounds fail, the uplands supply that deficiency; and, when the mountain canes are lodged (or become watery from too much rain) those in the plains yield surprisingly. Nor are the plantations here only seasonable, their Sugar sells for more than the Sugar of any other of his Majesty’s islands; as

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their produce cannot be refined to the best advantage, without a mixture of St. Kitts’ muscovado.¹⁷ In the barren part of the island, which runs out towards Nevis, are several ponds, which in dry weather crystallize into good salt; and below Mount Misery is a small Solfaterre and collection of fresh water, where fugitive Negroes often take shelter, and escape their pursuers.¹⁸ Not far below is a large plain which affords good pasture, water, and wood; and, if the approaches thereto were fortified, which might be done at a moderate expence, it would be rendered inaccessible. The English, repulsing the few natives and Spaniards, who opposed them, began to plant tobacco here A.D. 1623. Two years after, the French landed in St. Christopher on the same day that the English-settlers received a considerable reinforcement from their mother-country; and, the chiefs of both nations, being men of sound policy, entered into an agreement to divide the island between them: the French retaining both extremities, and the English possessing themselves of the middle parts of the island. Some time after both nations erected sugar-works, but there were more tobacco, indigo, coffee, and cotton-plantations, than Sugar ones, as these require a much greater fund to carry them on, than those other.¹⁹ All the planters, however, lived easy in their circumstances; for, though the Spaniards, who could not bear to be spectators of their thriving condition, did repossess themselves of the island, yet they were soon obliged to retire, and the colony succeeded better than ever. One reason for this was, that it had been agreed between the two nations, that they should here remain neutral whatever wars their mother-countries might wage against each other in Europe. This was a wise regulation for an infant settlement; but, when King James abdicated the British throne,²⁰ the French suddenly rose, and drove out the unprepared English by force of arms. The French colonists of St. Christopher had soon reason, however, to repent their impolitic breach of faith; for the expelled planters, being assisted by their countrymen from the neighbouring isles, and supported by a formidable fleet, soon recovered, not only their lost plantations, but obliged the French totally to abandon the island. After the treaty of Ryswick,²¹ indeed, some few of those among them, who had not obtained settlements in Martinico²² and Hispaniola, returned to St. Christopher: but the war of partition soon after breaking out, they were finally expelled, and the whole island was ceded in Sovereignty to the crown of Great Britain, by the treaty of Utrecht.²³ Since that time, St. Christopher has gradually improved, and it is now at the height of perfection. The Indian name of St. Christopher is Liamuiga, or the Fertile Island….

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VER. 132. the bearded Fig]²⁴ This wonderful tree, by the Indians called the Banian-tree; and by the botanists Ficus Indica, or Bengaliensis, is exactly described by Q. Curtius,²⁵ and beautifully by Milton in the following lines:²⁶

“The Fig-tree, not that kind renown’d for fruit,
“But such as at this day to Indians known,
“In Malabar and Decan spreads her arms;²⁷
“Branching so broad and long, that in the ground,
“The bended twigs take root, and daughters grow
“About the mother-tree, a pillar’d shade,
“High over-arch’d, and echoing walks between.
“There oft the Indian herdsman, shunning heat,
“Shelters in cool, and tends his pasturing herds
“At Loop-holes cut through thickest shade.”——

What year the Spaniards first discovered Barbadoes is not certainly known; this however is certain, that they never settled there, but only made use of it as a stock-island….²⁸

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VER. 526. seen the humming bird,] The humming bird is called Picaflore by the Spaniards, on account of its hovering over flowers, and sucking their juices, without lacerating, or even so much as discomposing their petals.²⁹ Its Indian name, says Ulloa, is Guinde, though it is also known by the appellation of Rabilargo and Lizongero. By the Caribbeans it was called Collobree. It is common in all the warm parts of America. There are various species of them, all exceeding small, beautiful and bold. The crested one, though not so frequent, is yet more beautiful than the others. It is chiefly to be found in the woody parts of the mountains. Edwards³⁰ has described a very beautiful humming bird, with a long tail, which is a native of Surinam, but which I never saw in these islands. They are easily caught in rainy weather….

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VER. 596. cassada,] Cassavi, cassava, is called Jatropha by botanists.³¹ Its meal makes a wholesome and well-tasted bread, although its juice be poisonous. There is a species of cassada which may be eat with safety, without expressing the juice; this the French call Camagnoc.³² The colour of its root is white, like a parsnip; that of the common kind is of a brownish red, before it is scraped. By coction the cassada-juice becomes an excellent sauce for fish; and the Indians prepare many wholesome dishes from it. I have given it internally mixed with flour without any bad consequences; it did not however produce any of the salutary effects I expected. A good starch is made from it. The stem is knotty, and, being cut into small junks and planted, young sprouts shoot up from each knob. Horses have been poisoned by eating its leaves. The French name it Manihot, Magnoc, and Manioc, and the Spaniards Mandiocha. It is pretended that all creatures but man eat the raw root of the cassada with impunity; and, when dried, that it is a sovereign antidote against venomous bites. A wholesome drink³³ is prepared from this root by the Indians, Spaniards, and Portuguese, according to Pineda. There is one species of this plant which the Indians only use, and is by them called Baccacoua….³⁴

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VER. 598. to the soursop]³⁵ The true Indian name of this tree is Suirsaak. It grows in the barrenest places to a considerable height. Its fruit will often weigh two pounds. Its skin is green, and somewhat prickly. The pulp is not disagreeable to the palate, being cool, and having its sweetness tempered with some degree of an acid. It is one of the Anonas, as are also the custard, star, and sugar-apples.³⁶ The leaves of the soursop are very shining and green. The fruit is wholesome, but seldom admitted to the tables of the elegant. The seeds are dispersed through the pulp like the guava. It has a peculiar flavour. It grows in the East as well as the West-Indies. The botanical name is Guanabanus. The French call it Petit Corosol, or Coeur de Boeuf, to which the fruit bears a resemblance. The root, being reduced to a powder, and snuffed up the nose, produces the same effect as tobacco. Taken by the mouth, the Indians pretend it is a specific in the epilepsy.

VER. 605. cacao-walk]³⁷ It is also called Cocao and Cocô. It is a native of some of

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the provinces of South America, and a drink made from it was the common food of the Indians before the Spaniards came among them, who were some time in those countries ere they could be prevailed upon to taste it; and it must be confessed, that the Indian chocolate had not a tempting aspect; yet I much doubt whether the Europeans have greatly improved its wholesomeness, by the addition of vanellas and other hot ingredients.³⁸ The tree often grows fifteen or twenty feet high, and is streight and handsome. The pods, which seldom contain less than thirty nuts of the size of a slatted olive,³⁹ grow upon the stem and principal branches. The tree loves a moist, rich and shaded soil: Hence those who plant cacao-walks, sometimes screen them by a hardier tree, which the Spaniards aptly term Madre de Cacao.⁴⁰ They may be planted fifteen or twenty feet distant, though some advise to plant them much nearer, and perhaps wisely; for it is an easy matter to thin them, when they are past the danger of being destroyed by dry weather, &c. Some recommend planting cassada, or bananas, in the intervals, when the cacao-trees are young, to destroy weeds, from which the walk cannot be kept too free. It is generally three years before they produce good pods;⁴¹ but, in six years, they are in highest perfection. The pods are commonly of the size and shape of a large cucumber.⁴² There are three or four sorts of cacao, which differ from one another in the colour and goodness of their nuts.⁴³ That from the Caraccas is certainly the best. None of the species grow in Peru. Its alimentary, as well as physical properties, are sufficiently known. This word is Indian….⁴⁴

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VER. 438. the bending coco’s]⁴⁵ The coco-nut tree is of the palm genus; there are several species of them, which grow naturally in the Torrid Zone.⁴⁶ The coco-nut tree is, by no means, so useful as travellers have represented it. The wood is of little or no service, being spungy, and the brown covering of the nuts is of too rough a texture to serve as apparel. The shell of the nut receives a good polish; and, having a handle put to it, is commonly used to drink water out of. The milk, or water of the nut, is cooling and pleasant; but, if drunk too freely, will frequently occasion a pain in the stomach. A salutary oil may be extracted from the kernel; which, if old, and eaten too plentifully, is apt to produce a shortness of breathing. A species of arrack⁴⁷ is made from this tree, in the East-Indies. The largest coco-nut trees grow on the banks of the river Oronoko.⁴⁸ They thrive best near the sea, and look beautiful at a distance. They afford no great shade. Ripe nuts have been produced from them in three years after planting. The nuts should be macerated in water, before they are put in the ground. Coco is an Indian name; the Spaniards call it also palma de las Indias; as the smallest kind, whose nuts are less than walnuts, is termed by them Coquillo. This grows in Chili,⁴⁹ and the nuts are esteemed more delicate than those of a larger size. In the Maldivy Islands,⁵⁰ it is pretended, they not only build houses of the coco-nut tree, but also vessels, with all their rigging; nay, and load them too with wine, oil, vinegar, black sugar,⁵¹ fruit, and strong water,⁵² from the same tree. If this be true, the Maldivian coco-nut trees must differ widely from those that grow in the West-Indies. The coco⁵³ must not be confounded with the coco-nut tree. That shrub grows in the hottest and moistest vales of the Andes. Its leaf, which is gathered two or three times a year, is much coveted by the natives of South-America, who will travel great journeys upon a single handful of the leaves, which they do not swallow, but only chew. It is of an unpleasant taste, but, by use, soon grows agreeable. Some authors have also confounded the coco-nut palm, with the coco, or chocolate-tree. The French call the coco-nut tree, Cocotier. Its stem, which is very lofty, is always bent; for which reason it looks better in an orchard than in a regular garden. As one limb fades, another shoots up in the center, like a pike. The botanical name is Palma indica, coccifera, angulosa….

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VER. 282. Karukera] The Indian name of Guadaloupe.

VER. 283. Matanina] The Caribbean name of Martinico. The Havannah⁵⁴ had not then been taken….

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VER. 350. For taste, for colour, and for various use:] It were impossible, in the short limits of a note, to enumerate the various uses of Sugar; and, indeed, as these are in general so well known, it is needless. A few properties of it, however, wherewith the learned are not commonly acquainted, I shall mention. In some places of the East-Indies, an excellent arrack is made from the Sugar-Cane: And, in South-America, Sugar is used as an antidote against one of the most sudden, as well as fatal poisons in the world. Taken by mouth, pocula morte carent,⁵⁵ this poison is quite innocent; but the slightest wound made by an arrow, whose point is tinged therewith, proves immediate death; for, by driving all the blood of the body immediately to the heart, it forthwith bursts it.⁵⁶ The fish and birds killed by these poisoned arrows (in the use of which the Indians are astonishingly expert) are perfectly wholesome to feed on. See Ulloa and De la Condamine’s account of the great river of Amazon.⁵⁷ It is a vegetable preparation….

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VER. 137. cherries,] The tree which produces this wholesome fruit is tall, shady, and of quick growth. Its Indian name is Acajou; hence corruptly called Cashew⁵⁸ by

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the English. The fruit has no resemblance to a cherry, either in shape or size; and bears, at its lower extremity, a nut (which the Spaniards name Anacardo, and physicians Anacardium) that resembles a large kidney-bean. Its kernel is as grateful as an almond, and more easy of digestion. Between its rhinds⁵⁹ is contained a highly caustic oil; which, being held to a candle, emits bright salient sparkles, in which the American fortune-tellers pretended they saw spirits who gave answers to whatever questions were put to them by their ignorant followers. This oil is used as a cosmetic by the ladies, to remove freckles and sun-burning; but the pain they necessarily suffer makes its use not very frequent. This tree also produces a gum not inferior to Gum-Arabic;⁶⁰ and its bark is an approved astringent. The juice of the cherry stains exceedingly. The long citron, or amber-coloured, is the best. The cashew-nuts, when unripe, are of a green colour; but, ripe, they assume that of a pale olive. This tree bears fruit but once a year….

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